Table of Contents

1. Introduction

   • Overview of Mental and Neurological Disorders

   • Importance of Differentiating the Two

2. What Are Mental Disorders?

   • Definition and Core Characteristics

   • Prevalence and Public Health Impact

   • Common Mental Disorders

3. What Are Neurological Disorders?

   • Definition and Physiological Basis

   • Structure and Function of the Brain

   • Role of Gray and White Matter

   • Development and Neural Connectivity

4. Causes of Neurological Disorders

   • Congenital Causes

     • Genetic and Chromosomal Factors

     • Metabolic Disorders and Malformations

   • Acquired Causes

     • Immune Disorders, Infections, Injuries, Neoplasms, and Toxins

5. Key Differences Between Mental and Neurological Disorders

   • Biological vs Psychological Origins

   • Structural vs Functional Impairments

   • Diagnostic Methods

   • Treatment Modalities

   • Examples of Disorders from Each Category

6. Common Mental Disorders

   • Anxiety Disorder

   • Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

   • Autism Spectrum Disorder

   • Bipolar Disorder

   • Borderline Personality Disorder

   • Depressive Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder

   • Dissociative Disorders

   • Dual Diagnosis

   • Eating Disorders

   • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

   • Panic Disorder

   • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

   • Schizoaffective Disorder

   • Schizophrenia

   • Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

7. Common Neurological Disorders

   • Alzheimer’s Disease

   • Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

   • Cerebral Palsy

   • Epilepsy

   • Parkinson’s Disease

   • Stroke and Aneurysms

   • Tardive Dyskinesia

   • Tourette Syndrome

   • Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

   • Others: Encephalitis, Neuropathy, Myopathy, and more

8. Neuropsychiatric Conditions

   • Anosognosia

   • Conditions that Blur the Line Between Neurology and Psychiatry

9. Neuroimaging Distinctions

   • Voxel-Based Morphometry and Meta-Analysis

   • Structural Differences in Gray Matter

   • Key Findings from Neuroimaging Studies

10. Functional Impact of Neurological Disorders

• Movement, Sensation, and Cognitive Impairments

• Communication and Emotional Regulation

• Life-long Management and Rehabilitation

11. Societal and Economic Impact

• Disability and Healthcare Burden

• Cost to Global and National Economies

• WHO and National Health Statistics

12. Conclusion

• Summary of Key Differences

• Importance of Integrated and Accurate Diagnosis

• Emerging Perspectives from Neuroscience and Psychiatry

13. References

Mental vs. Neurological Disorders: What Sets Them Apart

Mental disorders, are “psychological issues” or diseases related to abnormalities of thought, feeling or behaviour, producing either distress or impairment of function.

Neurological disorder is mainly physiological related to anatomical deficiencies.

According to the University of California, San Francisco, over 600 neurological disorders affect millions of individuals worldwide each year. These conditions not only cause significant pain and suffering for patients and their families but also impose a substantial economic burden, costing the global economy billions of dollars annually. In some countries, Social Security systems recognize the severity of neurological disorders and provide disability benefits for conditions such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and other nerve-related illnesses. [3]

Neurological disorders arise from dysfunctions within the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves. These disruptions can lead to a wide range of physical and psychological symptoms, depending on the affected area of the nervous system.

The brain begins its development before birth and continues to mature through infancy, childhood, and adolescence. While most brain cells—particularly neurons, or nerve cells—are formed before birth, the trillions of connections between them, known as synapses, develop primarily during infancy and early childhood. These neural connections play a vital role in brain function and continue to evolve throughout a person’s life.

Human brain is composed of:

• Gray matter. Neurons and the connections between them make up gray matter.
• White matter. Long fibres called axons make up white matter. Motor neurons, which transmit impulses away from the brain, are protected by an outer layer known as the myelin sheath.

More specifically, the white matter refers to those parts of the brain and spinal cord that are responsible for communication between the various gray matter regions and between the gray matter and the rest of the body. In essence, the gray matter is where the processing is done and the white matter is the channels of communication.

Gray and White matter. Image courtesy S Bhimji MD [33]

The white matter contains many nerve fibres or neurons that are sheathed in the white fatty insulating protein myelin. In section, myelin is white whereas the gray matter is that color due to all the gray nuclei contained in the cells that make it up.³²

The brain is self-organizing. It selects information to forward its growth. It also adapts to the environment. An individual experiences their environment through:

• Touch
• Smell
• Sight
• Taste
• Hearing

These senses produce connections in the brain.

Neurological disorders involve dysfunctions in the brain, spinal cord, and neural pathways. Symptoms depend on where damage occurs. Affected areas may control:

• Movement
• Sensation
• Communication
• Vision
• Hearing
• Thinking
• Emotion

Neurologic disorders are wide ranging. They have various causes, complications, and outcomes. Many require life-long management. ⁶

Many neurologic disorders are congenital. This means they are present at birth. Some disorders are acquired. Disorders of unknown origin are classified as idiopathic.

Congenital Causes:

Genetic factors can contribute to the development of certain neurological disorders. While these conditions are often inherited from a child’s parents through genes and chromosomes, some genetic changes occur spontaneously and are not passed down—these are known as de novo mutations.

Chromosomes are long strands of DNA wrapped around proteins, located at the center of our cells. Within these chromosomes are genes—specific segments of DNA that carry the instructions responsible for our traits and biological functions. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes.

Humans typically have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. A child inherits one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother and the other set from their father.

Congenital causes of neurologic disorders include:

• Gene abnormalities
• Chromosome abnormalities
• Metabolic Disorders
• Congenital malformation

Acquired Causes of neurologic disorder include:

• Immune disorders
• Postnatal infections
• Brain injury
• Spinal Cord injuries
• Neoplasm
• Toxins ⁶

Mental Disorder

Mental disorders, also known as psychiatric illnesses, are medical conditions that primarily affect a person’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors. These disruptions can cause significant distress or interfere with daily functioning.

Mental illnesses are serious health conditions—not signs of personal weakness, lack of willpower, or low intelligence. They exist on a spectrum, ranging from mild to severe. While mental health disorders are common, the most severe forms affect a smaller segment of the population. In fact, about 6% of Americans—roughly 1 in 17—live with a serious mental illness.

According to the National Institute of Mental Health, approximately one in four adults, or around 57.7 million Americans, experience a mental health disorder in any given year.

.WHO estimates that the burden of mental health problems in India is 2443 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) per 100,000 population; the age-adjusted suicide rate per 100 000 population is 21.1. The economic loss for India due to mental health conditions, between 2012-2030, is estimated at USD 1.03 trillion.³⁶

Anosognosia

Anosognosia is a neuropsychiatric condition in which a person is unaware of their own disability or illness. This lack of awareness is not intentional denial—it occurs unconsciously and is typically due to underlying brain dysfunction. Anosognosia is seen in individuals with psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, as well as in neurological disorders like dementia or after a stroke, particularly involving the brain’s right hemisphere. [7]

This condition is surprisingly common in mental illness. Studies suggest that anosognosia affects between 50% and 98% of people with schizophrenia, around 40% of those with bipolar disorder, and over 80% of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease.

It also happens to between 10% and 18% of people who have one-sided paralysis after a stroke. [8]

• Anosognosia means a person is unable to do one or more of the following:

  • Recognize that they have a medical or psychiatric condition.

  • Identify the signs and symptoms they are experiencing.

  • Associate those symptoms with their condition.

  • Acknowledge the seriousness of the condition and the need for treatment [8]

                               

Anxiety Disorder

 Anxiety is a normal part of our life. we are all worry about its occurrences in our life from time to time. It causes to avoid places, people, and subject matter. Sometimes, it makes very hard to enjoy life. The good thing is that it’s treatable and help is available.

Anxiety disorders is a mental illness. They don’t come from personal weakness, character flaws or problems with upbringing. Research is on, to find out the cause of anxiety disorder.

For people experiencing an anxiety disorder, though, this physical response happens often and feels overwhelming and hard to control.⁹      Like ‘Worry’, ‘keep worrying’, and ‘ continue to keep worrying’ is the tendency in case of Anxiety disorder.

Anxiety disorders differ from the everyday feelings of fear or worry that everyone experiences from time to time. Anxiety arises when we perceive a threat, even in the absence of real danger. While this response is a normal part of being human, in anxiety disorders, it becomes persistent, excessive, and difficult to control. Anticipating possible danger money worries due to loss of jobs, sick loved ones or environmental disaster etc. 

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a long-term neurodevelopmental condition that affects millions of children and often persists into adulthood. It is characterized by ongoing difficulties with attention, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior.

Children with ADHD may also face challenges such as low self-esteem, difficulty maintaining relationships, and struggles in academic settings. While symptoms may improve with age, many individuals continue to experience them throughout their lives. With the right support and strategies, however, people with ADHD can learn to manage their symptoms and thrive.10

          Types of ADHD

• ADHD, Combined Type:

  This is the most common form of ADHD and is marked by a combination of symptoms, including inattention, distractibility, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior.

  .

• ADHD, impulsive/hyperactive type. This, the least common type of ADHD, is characterized by impulsive and hyperactive behaviours without inattention and distractibility.
• ADHD, inattentive and distractible type. This type of ADHD is characterized predominately by inattention and distractibility without hyperactivity.³⁴

 Autism Syndrome

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental condition caused by differences in brain function. Individuals with ASD often face challenges with social communication and interaction, along with restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests. They may also have unique ways of learning, moving, or focusing attention.

It’s important to note that while some of these traits can appear in people without ASD, for those with the disorder, these characteristics can significantly affect daily life and development.

Social Communication and Interaction Challenges
People with ASD often struggle with social skills. Examples of early signs include:

• Avoiding or not maintaining eye contact

• Not responding to their name by 9 months of age

• Lacking facial expressions (e.g., happy, sad, angry, surprised) by 9 months

• Not playing simple interactive games like pat-a-cake by 12 months

• Using few or no gestures by 12 months (e.g., not waving goodbye)

• Not sharing interests with others by 15 months (e.g., showing a toy they like)

• Not pointing to indicate something interesting by 18 months

• Not noticing when others are hurt or upset by 24 months

• Not engaging with other children in play by 36 months

• Not engaging in imaginative play (e.g., pretending to be a teacher or superhero) by 48 months

• Does not sing, dance, or act for you by 60 months of age ¹¹

These signs can help caregivers and professionals identify autism early, which is key to providing effective support and intervention

 It is important to note that children with ASD may not have all or any of the behaviours listed as examples here.

Bipolar Disorder 

Bipolar Disorder is a mental health condition that affects the brain, leading to significant shifts in mood, energy levels, and the ability to carry out daily tasks. Individuals with bipolar disorder experience intense emotional states—ranging from extreme highs (mania or hypomania) to deep lows (depression)—which occur in distinct periods known as mood episodes, typically lasting days to weeks.

While everyone experiences changes in mood from time to time, the mood swings in bipolar disorder are more severe, prolonged, and can interfere with daily life

However, these mood changes typically last hours rather than days. ¹²

Bipolar disorder can be a life-long mental health problem that mainly affects one’s mood. It influences  your emotions, leading to dramatic shifts in mood. You can experience episodes of:

• mania, and
• depression

You may feel well between these times. Mood shifts can also lead to changes in your energy levels and behavior.

Symptoms of bipolar disorder can be severe. They can affect many areas of life, such as work, school and relationships.

Bipolar disorder is usually develops before 20 years of age. It may emerge in adulthood, but onset after the age of 40 is uncommon.

Confusion on detection of bipolar disorder: To diagnose bipolar disorder sometimes is a difficult proposition. A doctor might say one has something else such as depression before one gets a bipolar disorder diagnosed.

Diagnosing mental illnesses can often be challenging for doctors, as they typically cannot rely on tools like blood tests or brain scans for confirmation. For example, bipolar disorder—formerly known as manic depression—presents a wide range of symptoms that can significantly impact daily life. These symptoms can strain personal relationships and interfere with work responsibilities. The main types of symptoms associated with bipolar disorder are outlined below.

symptoms of bipolar disorder

The symptoms of bipolar disorder can significantly disrupt daily functioning, often affecting personal relationships and professional life. Below is an overview of the different types of symptoms.

 Mania

Symptoms of mania can include:

• feeling happy or excited, even if things aren’t going well ,
• experiencing a surge of new and exciting ideas,
• rapidly shifting from one thought or idea to another
• racing thoughts,
• talking very quickly,
• hearing voices that other people can’t hear,
• being more irritable than normal,
• feeling much better about than usual,
• finding it easy to become distracted and having difficulty concentrating on a single topic
• not being able to sleep, or feel that you don’t want to sleep,
• thinking that you can do much more than you actually can,
• making impulsive or unusually large decisions without fully considering the consequences
• doing things, one normally wouldn’t do which can cause problems. Such as:
  • spending a lot of money,
  • having casual sex with different people,
  • using drugs or alcohol,
  • gambling, or
  • making unwise decisions.

Hypomania

Hypomania is like mania but with milder symptoms.

Depression

Bipolar Disorder and Depression do coexist sometimes. Therefore, it’s important to recognize the symptoms of depression, which may include:

• low mood,
• having less energy and feeling tired,
• feeling hopeless or negative,
• feeling guilty, worthless or helpless,
• being less interested in things one normally likes doing,
• difficulty concentrating, remembering or making decisions,
• feeling restless or irritable,
• sleeping too much or not being able to sleep,
• eating less or over eating,
• losing or gaining weight, and
• experiencing thoughts of death or suicide, or engaging in suicide attempts

Psychosis

Sometimes one can have psychotic symptoms during a severe episode of mania or depression. Symptoms of psychosis can be:

• This means that one may hear, see, or feel things that are not there, and
• This means one may believe things that aren’t true. Other people will usually find one’s beliefs unusual.

Psychotic symptoms in bipolar disorder can reflect one’s mood. For example, if you have a manic episode, you may believe that you have special powers or are being monitored by the society. During a depressive episode, you may experience intense feelings of guilt over things you believe you’ve done wrong.. You may feel that you are worse than anybody else or feel that you don’t exist. ³⁵

Borderline Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder is a serious mental health condition that significantly impairs an individual’s ability to regulate emotions. This emotional instability can lead to impulsive actions, a distorted self-image, and difficulty maintaining stable relationships.

Common symptoms of BPD include:

• Intense efforts to avoid real or perceived abandonment, often resulting in rapid shifts in relationships—such as becoming overly attached quickly or abruptly ending them.

• Unstable and intense relationships with family, friends, or romantic partners.

• A distorted and fragile sense of self or identity.

• Impulsive and potentially harmful behaviors, such as excessive spending, unsafe sex, substance abuse, reckless driving, or binge eating. Note: If these behaviors primarily occur during elevated mood or energy levels, they may be better explained by a mood disorder rather than BPD.

• Self-injurious behavior, such as cutting.

• Recurring suicidal thoughts, threats, or behaviors.

• Intense mood swings, typically lasting from a few hours to a few days.

• Persistent feelings of emptiness.

• Episodes of intense anger or difficulty controlling anger.

• Feelings of dissociation—such as feeling disconnected from oneself, observing oneself from outside the body, or experiencing a sense of unreality.

Depressive Disorder
Depressive disorder, commonly referred to as depression, is a widespread mental health condition characterized by persistent sadness or a loss of interest in activities once found enjoyable. These symptoms must persist for an extended period and can deeply affect a person’s daily life.

Unlike ordinary mood fluctuations, depression can impact all areas of life, including relationships, school, work, and community engagement. It may arise after experiences such as trauma, loss, or chronic stress. Women are statistically more likely to experience depression than men.

Key facts about depression:

• Depression affects an estimated 3.8% of the global population, including 5% of adults—4% of men and 6% of women.

• Among adults over 60, the prevalence is approximately 5.7%.

• Around 280 million people worldwide live with depression.

• Depression is about 50% more common in women than men.

• Over 10% of pregnant women and new mothers experience depression.

• More than 700,000 people die by suicide each year. Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death among individuals aged 15–29.

Despite the existence of effective treatments, more than 75% of individuals in low- and middle-income countries do not receive adequate care. Barriers include limited investment in mental health services, a shortage of trained professionals, and widespread social stigma.14

Major Depressive Disorder

It is diagnosed when an individual has a persistently low or depressed mood, anhedonia or decreased interest in pleasurable activities, feelings of guilt or worthlessness, lack of energy, poor concentration, appetite changes, psychomotor retardation or agitation, sleep disturbances, or suicidal thoughts.15
Depression ranges in seriousness from mild, temporary episodes of sadness persistent depression. Major depressive disorder is more-severe form of depression, also known as clinical depression. It isn’t the same as depression caused by a loss, such as the death of a loved one, or a medical condition, such as a thyroid disorder.
Signs and symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder may include:
• Feelings of sadness, tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness
      • Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration, even over small matters
      • Loss of interest or pleasure in most or all normal activities, such as sex, hobbies or sports
      • Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or sleeping too much
      • Tiredness and lack of energy, so even small tasks take extra effort
      •  Reduced appetite and weight loss or increased cravings for food and weight gain

• Persistent anxiety, agitation, or restlessness

• Noticeably slowed thinking, speech, or physical movements

• Feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt, often accompanied by rumination on past mistakes or self-blame

• Difficulty with thinking clearly, concentrating, making decisions, or remembering information

• Frequent or recurring thoughts of death, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, or completed suicide

• Unexplained physical symptoms, such as chronic back pain or headaches

These symptoms are typically severe enough to interfere with daily functioning, causing significant disruptions in relationships, work, school, or social life. 16

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders are characterized by disruptions in memory, identity, emotions, perception, behavior, and sense of self. These symptoms can affect nearly every aspect of a person’s mental functioning.¹⁷

• 1. • Dissociative disorders are mental health conditions characterized by a disconnection or lack of continuity between a person’s thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions, and sense of identity. These disruptions represent involuntary and unhealthy attempts to escape reality, often triggered by trauma or extreme stress, and can significantly interfere with daily functioning.

       Common symptoms include:

       • Memory loss (amnesia) related to specific time periods, events, people, or personal information

       • A feeling of detachment from oneself or one’s emotions

       • Perceiving people or surroundings as strange, distorted, or unreal

       • A blurred or fragmented sense of identity

       • Difficulty coping with emotional or occupational stress

       • Ongoing problems in relationships, work, or other important areas of life

       • Co-occurring mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, or suicidal thoughts and behaviors

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association, there are three primary types of dissociative disorders:

• Dissociative Amnesia:
  This disorder is characterized by significant memory loss that goes beyond normal forgetfulness and cannot be explained by a medical condition. Individuals may be unable to recall personal information, often related to traumatic or stressful events.

• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):
  Previously known as multiple personality disorder, DID involves the presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states. These identities may alternately take control of the person’s behavior, often accompanied by gaps in memory.

• Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder:
  This condition involves persistent or recurring experiences of detachment. Individuals may feel as though they are observing themselves from outside their body (depersonalization) or perceive the world around them as dreamlike, distorted, or unreal (derealization).

Dual Diagnosis

Dual diagnosis refers to the co-occurrence of a mental health disorder and a substance use disorder in the same individual. Mental health conditions may include depression, anxiety, or other psychiatric disorders, while substance use disorders involve the misuse of alcohol, drugs, or other addictive substances.

When these conditions occur simultaneously, they can intensify one another—untreated mental health symptoms may contribute to increased substance use, while substance misuse can exacerbate psychological distress and interfere with treatment and recovery.

Common symptoms of a substance use disorder may include:

Symptoms of a substance use disorder may include:

• Withdrawal from your family and friends.
• Difficulty maintaining focus.
• Sudden changes in one’s behaviour.
• Engaging in risky behaviours.
• Needing increasingly larger amounts of the substance to achieve the same effect, and/or experiencing withdrawal symptoms when not using it.
• Feeling like one needs the substance to function.

Common signs of a mental health disorder may include:

• Extreme mood changes.
• Confusion.
• Problems concentrating.
• Difficulty performing or maintaining responsibilities at work or school..
• Avoiding social activities.
• Thoughts of suicide

Symptoms may vary widely because there are many different combinations of dual diagnoses ¹⁹

Eating Disorder

Eating disorders are mental health conditions marked by significant and persistent disruptions in eating habits, along with distressing thoughts and emotions. These disorders can have severe consequences, impacting physical health, emotional well-being, and social functioning. Types of eating disorders include:

• anorexia nervosa – it’s a psychiatric disease in which patients restrict their food intake relative to their energy requirements through eating less, exercising more, and/or purging food through laxatives and vomiting. Despite being severely underweight, they do not recognize it and have distorted body images.³⁷
• bulimia nervosa – People binge eat (the consumption of large quantities of food in a short period of time) and then purge to lose weight and avoid weight gain.
• Binge eating – Eating a greater amount of food than most people would within a limited period (one to two hours), secondly, feeling a sense of compulsion or lack of control associated with eating third, Binge eating episodes occur at least once a week and have been going on for several months fourth, Feelings of distress and/or self-loathing about binge eating.³⁸
• Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID), Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED), Pica, and Rumination DisorderPica and rumination disorder are newly classified feeding and eating disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5; APA, 2013) and the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11; WHO, 2021).
  • Pica involves persistent eating of non-nutritive, non-food substances (e.g., dirt, paper, or feces) (APA, 2013; Leung & Hon, 2019).
  • Rumination Disorder is characterized by repeated regurgitation of food, which may then be re-chewed, re-swallowed, or spit out.

Eating disorders often co-occur with other psychiatric disorders most commonly, mood and anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and alcohol and substance use disorders ²⁰

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a chronic mental health condition characterized by persistent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) performed to alleviate distress. Common compulsions include excessive handwashing, checking, counting, or other rituals that can severely disrupt daily functioning and social interactions.

While OCD is typically a lifelong disorder, symptom intensity may fluctuate over time. Many people experience occasional obsessive thoughts or compulsive behaviors, but in OCD, these become so frequent and distressing that they significantly impair normal activities.

What causes OCD

Researchers don’t know what exactly causes OCD. However, research suggests multiple contributing factors may play a role in its development, including:

• Genetics: Sometimes, OCD can be of hereditary reason. If parents have OCD so do the children,
• Neurobiological (Brain) Factors:
  Imaging studies reveal structural and functional differences in the frontal cortex and subcortical brain regions in individuals with OCD. Additionally, OCD shares neurological links with conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, Tourette’s syndrome, and epilepsy, suggesting overlapping pathways in brain circuitry.
• PANDAS Syndrome (Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections):
  This syndrome occurs in some children following streptococcal infections (e.g., strep throat or scarlet fever), triggering sudden-onset OCD symptoms. PANDAS highlights the potential role of immune responses in neuropsychiatric conditions.
• Childhood trauma: Some studies show an association between childhood trauma, such as abuse  or neglect, and the development of OCD.²²

 Panic Disorder

Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder where sudden attacks of panic or fear regularly takes place.

While anxiety and panic are normal responses to threatening or stressful situations, individuals with panic disorder experience these feelings frequently and unexpectedly—often without any obvious trigger. Unlike

typical stress reactions, panic disorder involves recurrent episodes of intense fear or discomfort that can arise suddenly, even in everyday circumstances.

Features of Panic Attack:

Anxiety

Anxiety is a feeling of unease. Symptoms can vary in intensity from mild to severe, encompassing both generalized worry and acute episodes of fear.

Panic is the most severe form of anxiety. In such a situation, one may start to avoid certain things, like activities etc. out of fear that they’ll trigger another attack.

This can lead to a cycle of constantly fearing the possibility of fear itself.. It aggravates the sense of panic and may cause to have more attacks.

During a panic attack one gets a rush of intense mental and physical symptoms. It can come on very quickly and for no apparent reason. Panic attacks often produce intense, overwhelming distress that can be profoundly unsettling..

Symptoms include:

• a racing heartbeat
• feeling of faint
• sweating
• nausea
• chest pain
• shortness of breath
• trembling
• hot flushes
• chills
• shaky limbs
• a choking sensation
• dizziness
• numbness or pins and needles
• dry mouth
• Feeling like you need to go to the bathroom
• ringing in your ears
• An intense fear that something terrible is about to happen, including fear of deathg
• a churning stomach
• a tingling in your fingers
• feeling like you’re not connected to your body

 

Most panic attacks last between 5 and 20 minutes. Some have been reported to last up to an hour.

The number of attacks depend on severity of the condition. Some people have attacks once or twice a month, while others have them several times a week.²³

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that can arise in individuals after exposure to a traumatic, frightening, or life-threatening event.

During and following a distressing experience, fear is a normal reaction—part of the body’s innate “fight-or-flight” response, which aids in self-preservation. While many people have varying emotional and physical responses to trauma, most gradually recover from initial symptoms. However, those who endure persistent difficulties may be diagnosed with PTSD.24

 illustration courtesy ‘Theresa Chiechi / Verywell’

PTSD Symptoms

It’s normal to have upsetting memories or emotions right after a traumatic event, and they may resurface occasionally over time. However, for those with PTSD, these intrusive thoughts and feelings persist much longer and interfere with daily functioning.

PTSD symptoms are grouped into four main categories, which include: ³

Intrusive symptoms: 

• Unwanted, recurring memories of the trauma
• Distressing nightmares related to an old event
• Vivid flashbacks that make you feel like you’re reliving the experience
• Intense emotional or physical distress when exposed to trauma reminders
• Physiological reactions, such as a racing heart or sweating, triggered by reminders of the event

Avoidance Symptoms:

• Actively avoiding thoughts or emotions connected to the traumatic experience
• Steering clear of reminders—such as people, places, or situations—that trigger memories of the event
• Resisting discussions about what happened or avoiding sharing your feelings about it

Increased arousal:

• Being easily startled or fearful
• Struggling with irritability or angry outbursts
• Having trouble concentrating
• Having difficulty falling or staying asleep
• Behaving recklessly or self-destructively
• An exaggerated sense of vigilance, with a constant focus on surroundings and perceived threats to safety.

Changes in thoughts and feelings:

• Difficulty recalling key aspects of the traumatic event

• Persistent and distorted beliefs about oneself or others (e.g., “I’m unworthy” or “No one can be trusted”)

• Recurring emotions such as fear, anger, guilt, shame, horror, or a sense of hopelessness

• A noticeable loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyable

• Feelings of detachment from others or difficulty maintaining close relationships

• Trouble experiencing positive emotions, such as joy, satisfaction, or love

People living with PTSD often experience co-occurring mental or physical health conditions, including depression and substance use disorders. Symptoms can fluctuate in intensity and may worsen over time, especially if left untreated. 25

Schizoaffective Disorder

Schizoaffective Disorder

Schizoaffective disorder is a complex mental health condition that features symptoms of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder, such as bipolar disorder or major depression. It is characterized by a combination of psychotic symptoms—such as hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized thinking—and mood-related symptoms, including episodes of depression or mania.

The term “schizo-” refers to the schizophrenia-related aspects of the disorder, which impact perception, thought processes, and sense of self. The suffix “-affective” relates to the mood components of the illness, involving significant fluctuations in mood, energy, and behavior. 26

Symptoms of Schizoaffective Disorder
The symptoms of schizoaffective disorder can vary widely from person to person. However, the condition is generally marked by a combination of the following:

• Psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations (perceiving things that aren’t actually present, like hearing voices) and delusions (firmly held false beliefs that are not based in reality).

• Mood disorder symptoms, which may follow:

  • A bipolar pattern, involving episodes of mania (elevated mood, increased energy, impulsive behavior) that may alternate with periods of depression.

  • A depressive pattern, characterized by persistent low mood, loss of interest, and feelings of hopelessness.

Course and Symptoms of Schizoaffective Disorder
While the development and progression of schizoaffective disorder can vary among individuals, it is typically defined by the presence of a major mood episode—either depressive or manic—alongside at least a two-week period of psychotic symptoms occurring independently of any mood disturbance.

The specific signs and symptoms can differ based on the subtype of the disorder:

• Bipolar Type: Involves episodes of mania, with or without depressive episodes.

• Depressive Type: Involves only major depressive episodes.

Common symptoms may include:

• Delusions – Fixed, false beliefs that persist despite clear or contradictory evidence

• Hallucinations – Sensing things that aren’t present, such as hearing voices or seeing non-existent figures

• Disorganized thinking or speech – Difficulty communicating clearly, often resulting in incoherent or hard-to-follow speech

• Bizarre or unusual behaviours

Depressive symptoms, including persistent feelings of emptiness, sadness, or worthlessness

• Periods of manic mood, with an increase in energy and a decreased need for sleep over several days, and behaviours that are out of character
• Impaired occupational, academic and social functioning
• Difficulty maintaining personal hygiene and grooming, including cleanliness and physical appearance ²⁷

Individuals with schizoaffective disorder face an increased risk of:

• Suicide, suicide attempts or suicidal thoughts
• Social isolation
• Family and interpersonal conflicts
• Unemployment
• Anxiety disorders
• Alcohol or other substance use problems
• Significant health problems
• Poverty and homelessness ²⁷

 Since schizophrenia disorder is very common but a serious mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves, and has serious effects on the society, and so this mental illness demands a more comprehensive insight.

People with schizophrenia may seem like they have lost touch with reality, which can be distressing for them and for their family and friends. The symptoms of schizophrenia can make it difficult to participate in usual, everyday activities, but effective treatments are available.

Schizophrenia symptoms can differ from person to person, but they generally fall into three main categories: psychotic, negative, and cognitive.

Psychotic symptoms include changes in the way a person thinks, acts, and experiences the world.

Schizophrenia is a serious mental health condition that can cause individuals to feel disconnected from reality, which may be deeply distressing both for them and for their loved ones. The symptoms can interfere with daily functioning and make it challenging to engage in routine activities. However, with proper treatment, many individuals with schizophrenia can manage their symptoms and lead meaningful lives.

Schizophrenia symptoms vary from person to person but are generally grouped into three main categories: psychotic, negative, and cognitive symptoms.

• Psychotic symptoms involve disruptions in thinking, perception, and behavior. These may include hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized thinking. Individuals may lose a shared sense of reality and experience the world in a distorted way.

• For some, these symptoms may come and go in episodes. For others, they may become more consistent and long-lasting over time.

 Psychotic symptoms include:     

• Hallucinations: These involve sensing things that aren’t actually present. A person may see, hear, smell, taste, or feel things that have no external source. Hearing voices is one of the most common hallucinations in schizophrenia. Individuals may experience these voices for an extended period before others—such as family or friends—recognize a concern.

• Delusions: These are firmly held false beliefs that are not based in reality and may appear irrational or bizarre to others. For example, a person might believe that television or radio broadcasts are sending them personal messages or that they are being targeted or harmed by others, despite a lack of evidence.

• Thought Disorder: This refers to disorganized or illogical thinking patterns. Individuals with thought disorder may struggle to organize their thoughts or express them clearly. Speech may be difficult to follow, with sudden topic shifts, interruptions in thought, or the use of made-up words that hold no recognized meaning.

• Movement disorder: When a person exhibits abnormal body movements. Individuals with movement disorders may engage in repetitive, involuntary movements or behaviors.

Negative symptoms may include reduced motivation, diminished interest or pleasure in daily activities, social withdrawal, limited emotional expression, and difficulty carrying out everyday tasks.

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Negative symptoms include:

• Difficulty planning and following through with tasks, like grocery shopping

• Reduced ability to anticipate or experience pleasure in daily activities

• Speaking in a flat tone and showing limited facial expressions

• Avoiding social situations or interacting in awkward or inappropriate ways

• Extremely low energy and a tendency to engage in passive behavior. In severe cases, a person may stop moving or speaking altogether—a rare condition known as catatonia

These symptoms can occasionally be misinterpreted as signs of depression or other mental health disorders.

Cognitive symptoms can manifest as problems with attention, concentration, and memory

. These issues can make it challenging to hold a conversation, learn new information, or keep track of appointments. A person’s level of cognitive functioning is often one of the strongest indicators of their ability to manage daily life.

• Difficulty planning and following through with tasks, like grocery shopping

• Struggling to anticipate or experience pleasure in daily activities

• Speaking in a monotone voice and displaying limited facial expressions

• Withdrawing from social interactions or engaging in them awkwardly

• Exhibiting extremely low energy and spending excessive time in passive activities; in severe cases, a person may temporarily stop speaking or moving altogether, a rare condition known as catatonia

Health care providers evaluate cognitive functioning using specific tests.

These symptoms are often misidentified as signs of depression or other mental health disorders.

A variety of factors can influence an individual’s risk of developing schizophrenia.

• Genetics: Schizophrenia sometimes runs in families. However, having a family member with schizophrenia does not necessarily mean that others in the family will develop the condition.

  Schizophrenia may result from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental influences, including life experiences

• Environment:Research suggests that a combination of genetic factors and aspects of a person’s environment and life experiences may play a role in the development of schizophrenia. Environmental factors like, living in poverty, stressful or dangerous surroundings, and exposure to viruses or nutritional problems before birth.
• Brain structure and function:Research suggests that individuals with schizophrenia may exhibit differences in the size of specific brain regions and in the connections between them. Some of these variations may begin to develop before birth. Researchers are working to better understand how brain structure and function may relate to schizophrenia. ²⁸

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

It’s common for people to experience brief periods of sadness or feel unlike their usual selves. In some cases, these mood shifts are linked to seasonal changes. For example, many individuals feel “down” during the shorter days of fall and winter—a pattern often referred to as the “winter blues.” As daylight increases in the spring, their mood typically improves.

Though this example does not fit in tropical countries like in Asia or Africa. Because, plenty of sunlight and not a big difference in day and night between winter and summer.

In some cases, these mood changes become more severe and begin to impact how a person feels, thinks, and manages everyday tasks. So, if significant changes have been noticed in a person’s mood and behaviours whenever seasons change, indicates the person is suffering from seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

In most cases, symptoms of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) begin in late fall or early winter and subside during the spring and summer. This form is known as winter-pattern SAD or winter depression. Less commonly, some individuals experience depressive episodes during the spring and summer months—a variation referred to as summer-pattern SAD or summer depression.

What are the signs and symptoms of SAD?

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a subtype of depression marked by a recurring seasonal pattern, with symptoms typically lasting 4 to 5 months each year. While SAD shares many symptoms with major depression, it also includes season-specific features that vary between winter-pattern and summer-pattern SAD. Not everyone with SAD experiences every symptom..

Symptoms of major depression may include:

• Feeling persistently down or sad for most of the day, nearly every day.
• The hobbies or passions that once excited you now feel dull or meaningless.
• Experiencing changes in appetite or weight
• Having problems with sleep
• Feeling sluggish or agitated
• Having low energy
• Feeling hopeless or worthless
• Having difficulty concentrating
• Having frequent thoughts of death or suicide

People with winter-pattern SAD might also experience:

• Oversleeping (hypersomnia)
• Intense hunger, often with a strong desire for bread , pasta (carbohydrates), or sweets
• Weight gain
• Social withdrawal (feeling like “hibernating”)

Specific symptoms for summer-pattern SAD may include:

• Trouble sleeping (insomnia)
• Poor appetite, leading to weight loss
• Restlessness and agitation
• Anxiety
• Episodes of violent behaviours ²⁹

Tardive Dyskinesia

Tardive dyskinesia is a drug-induced movement disorder. Prescription drugs, particularly those used to manage psychiatric disorders, can sometimes lead to this effect.

Tardive dyskinesia causes involuntary (one can’t control them) facial tics (sudden movements). It may also lead to involuntary movements, such as lip-smacking.

“Tardive” means delayed or late. “Dyskinesia” refers to involuntary muscle movements. With this condition, there’s a delay between starting a medicine and when dyskinesia is developed. In most cases, prolonged medication use precedes disorder onset, typically spanning several years.

Certain factors increase the risk of Tardive Dyskinesia including:

• Diabetes
• (HIV). HIV patients
• Substance use disorder- It can range from mild to severe (addiction)
• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). ³⁰

Tourette Syndrome

Tourette syndrome is a disorder that involves repetitive movements or unwanted sounds (tics) that can’t be easily controlled. For example, repeatedly blinking eyes, shrugging one’s shoulders or blurt out unusual sounds or offensive words. Sudden, brief, intermittent movements or sounds are the features of TS.

Types of Tics or unusual sound:

• Motor Tics

Motor tics are movements of the body. Examples of motor tics are repetitive, uncontrollable actions—like rapid eye blinking, shoulder raising, or abrupt arm movements

• Vocal Tics

People with vocal tics may blurt out sounds, throat-clearing, or words without meaning to.. Examples of vocal tics include humming, clearing the throat, or yelling out a word or phrase.

Tics can be either simple or complex:

• Simple Tics

It may also lead to involuntary movements, such as lip-smacking. Examples of simple tics include squinting the eyes or sniffing, face, or limbs.

• Complex Tics

Unlike simple tics, complex tics combine movements—like head-turning while stepping—and may happen in a particular order or, tapping objects in a pattern, or repeating words/phrases—often involving multiple body parts together. 31

Neurological Disorder

Neurological disorders can encompass genetic conditions, congenital abnormalities, infections, lifestyle or environmental health issues (such as malnutrition), as well as brain, spinal cord, or nerve injuries

List of Neurological Disorder

The following list is not exhaustive but indicative only:

Absence of the Septum Pellucidum

The septum pellucidum (SP) is a thin membrane in the brain’s midline. When children are born without it and also have pituitary deficiencies and optic nerve defects, they are diagnosed with septo-optic dysplasia.

Acid Lipase Disease

This term refers to two related disorders of fatty acid metabolism. Acid lipase disease occurs due to a deficiency or absence of the enzyme required to break down specific dietary fats, leading to harmful lipid accumulation in cells and tissues. These lipids include waxes, oils, and cholesterol.

Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis

A disorder in which the immune system attacks the brain, it most commonly arises after a viral illness or immunization, but spontaneous cases also occur. It shares characteristics with multiple sclerosis and falls within the MS spectrum.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), referred to as Hyperkinetic Disorder in the UK (though ‘ADHD’ remains the more widely used term), is primarily classified as a neurodevelopmental condition affecting approximately 5% of the global population.

Agnosia

This condition involves the inability to recognize objects, faces, sounds, shapes, or smells—despite intact sensory function and no significant memory impairment. It typically results from brain injury or neurological disease, often due to damage in the right parietal lobe.

AIDS

Neurological complications are common in HIV disease. The scope of neurological disorders is extensive, involving either the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or the peripheral nervous system (external nerves and connected muscles)

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

A progressive brain disorder that begins with memory impairment and gradually affects cognitive functions including reasoning, language, and perception. The disease leads to worsening dementia over time.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

This fatal neurodegenerative disease involves deterioration of both upper and lower motor neurons. Upper motor neuron damage causes spasticity and hyperreflexia from spinal cord pathway degeneration, while lower motor neuron loss results in muscle weakness, atrophy, and fasciculations. Progressive respiratory muscle failure ultimately leads to death.

Aneurysm

A dangerous arterial bulge caused by weakened vessel walls, most frequently occurring in brain arteries and the aorta. The risk of rupture increases with size, potentially causing fatal hemorrhage. While treatable when detected, ruptured aneurysms require emergency intervention.

Atrial Fibrillation and Stroke

This cardiac arrhythmia features chaotic atrial electrical activity, significantly elevating stroke risk. Atrial fibrillation-related strokes tend to be severe, with half causing major disability due to embolic events in cerebral circulation.

Autism

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction, communication difficulties, and restricted, repetitive behaviors, typically emerging before age three. While autism is distinct from milder autism spectrum disorders (ASD) like Asperger syndrome, its exact genetic causes remain complex and not fully understood, despite strong heritability.

Back Pain (Dorsalgia)

Pain originating from structures in the back, including muscles, nerves, bones, or spinal joints. It can vary from mild discomfort to intense, debilitating pain.

Bell’s Palsy

Sudden weakness or paralysis of facial muscles on one side due to dysfunction of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII). This results in drooping, impaired facial expressions, and difficulty closing the eye.

Brain & Spinal Tumors

Abnormal growths within the skull or spinal column, which can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Because the central nervous system (CNS) is confined within rigid bone, even noncancerous tumors can compress critical tissues, impairing function. Tumors originating in the CNS are termed primary tumors.

Brain Aneurysm

A cerebrovascular condition where a weakened blood vessel wall in the brain bulges, forming a balloon-like dilation. If ruptured, it can lead to life-threatening bleeding (hemorrhagic stroke).

Brain Injury (Traumatic Brain Injury, TBI)

Damage to the brain caused by sudden trauma, such as a blow (closed injury) or penetration (open injury). TBI can affect cognitive, physical, emotional, and social functioning, with potential damage to the cerebrum, cerebellum, or brainstem. It falls under acquired brain injury (ABI), alongside non-traumatic causes like stroke or infection.

Causalgia (Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, CRPS)

A chronic pain disorder marked by severe, persistent pain disproportionate to the initial injury. Symptoms include extreme skin sensitivity, swelling, temperature changes, and sweating in the affected limb. Pain often spreads and worsens over time.

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Central Pain Syndrome

Central pain syndrome is a neurological condition resulting from damage or dysfunction within the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord. It can be triggered by various conditions such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, tumors, epilepsy, trauma to the brain or spinal cord, or Parkinson’s disease.

The nature of the pain experienced with this syndrome varies significantly from person to person, largely due to the diverse underlying causes. It may affect large areas of the body or be limited to specific regions, such as the hands or feet. The intensity and distribution of the pain often correspond to the location and severity of the CNS injury.

Pain is typically constant, ranging from moderate to severe, and may be intensified by factors such as touch, movement, emotional stress, and changes in temperature—particularly exposure to cold.

Cephalic Disorders

Cephalic disorders are congenital conditions resulting from damage to or abnormal development of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord. The term “cephalic” refers to the head or head end of the body, while “congenital” indicates that the disorder is present at birth or develops before birth. These disorders can lead to developmental delays, physical disabilities, and can be life-threatening. They may be influenced by genetic factors or environmental exposures during pregnancy, such as certain medications taken by the mother, maternal infections, or radiation exposure. Some cephalic disorders occur prematurely when the cranial sutures (the fibrous joints connecting the skull bones) close too early. Most cephalic disorders arise from disturbances occurring very early in fetal nervous system development. ​Wikipedia,         EHDi PALS

Cerebellar Degeneration

Cerebellar degeneration involves the deterioration and death of neurons in the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for muscle coordination and balance. This condition can also affect other areas of the central nervous system, including the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, cerebral cortex, and brainstem. Cerebellar degeneration is often associated with inherited genetic mutations that alter the normal production of specific proteins necessary for neuron survival. ​BrainFacts

Cerebral Aneurysm

A cerebral aneurysm, also referred to as an intracranial or brain (intracerebal) aneurysm, is a weakened area in the wall of a blood vessel within the brain that bulges outward, filling with blood. This abnormal dilation can compress nearby nerves or brain tissue and may eventually rupture, leading to bleeding in the surrounding area (a hemorrhagic stroke). While some cerebral aneurysms—especially small ones—remain asymptomatic and never rupture, others pose serious health risks. They can develop anywhere in the brain but are most frequently found along the circle of Willis, a critical arterial loop at the base of the brain.  American Storke Association

Cerebral Arteriosclerosis

Cerebral arteriosclerosis results from the thickening and hardening of the walls of the arteries in the brain. Symptoms may include headaches, facial pain, and impaired vision. This condition can lead to serious health problems; if the arterial walls become too thick or a blood clot becomes lodged in a narrowed passage, blood flow to the brain can be blocked, causing an ischemic stroke. Uneven thickening and hardening can also lead to the development of aneurysms. When an aneurysm bursts, it can lead to bleeding in the brain, resulting in a hemorrhagic stroke. Both types of strokes can be fatal. ​

Cerebral Atrophy

Cerebral atrophy is the progressive degeneration of neurons and their synaptic connections in the brain, leading to a reduction in brain volume and function.. Atrophy can be generalized, affecting the entire brain, or focal, targeting specific areas and leading to a decrease in functions controlled by those regions. If the cerebral hemispheres are affected, conscious thought and voluntary processes may be impaired. ​BrainFacts,     Wikipedia

Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of permanent neurological disorders that affect movement, posture, and muscle coordination, typically appearing in infancy or early childhood.

Although CP affects muscle movement, it is not caused by problems in the muscles or nerves but by abnormalities in parts of the brain that control muscle movements. Most children with CP are born with it, though it may not be detected until months or years later.

Early Signs of Cerebral Palsy

Early signs of cerebral palsy typically emerge before age three and may include:

• Poor muscle coordination during voluntary movements (ataxia)
• Stiff, tight muscles with exaggerated reflexes (spasticity)
• Abnormal gait patterns, such as:
  • Dragging one foot or leg
  • Walking on toes
  • A crouched or “scissor-like” walk – crouched gait, or a “scissored” gait
• Irregular muscle tone (either excessively stiff or unusually floppy)  Mayo Clinic

​

Chronic Pain

Chronic pain is pain that persists beyond the usual recovery period or occurs along with a chronic health condition, such as arthritis. Unlike acute pain, which is a normal sensation triggered in the nervous system to alert you to possible injury, chronic pain continues.

In cases of chronic pain, the nervous system continues transmitting pain signals persistently – for weeks, months, or potentially years beyond normal healing time. This sustained neurological activity represents maladaptive pain processing. There may have been an initial mishap—such as a sprained back or serious infection—or an ongoing cause of pain, like arthritis or cancer.

However, some people suffer chronic pain without any past injury or evidence of body damage. Common chronic pain complaints include headaches, low back pain, cancer pain, arthritis pain, neurogenic pain (resulting from damage to the peripheral nerves or to the central nervous system itself), and psychogenic pain (not due to past disease or injury or any visible sign of damage inside or outside the nervous system). ​ NIND

Congenital Myopathy  

Congenital myopathies represent a group of inherited neuromuscular disorders present at birth, characterized by hypotonia (reduced muscle tone), muscle weakness, and delayed motor development. While hundreds of conditions may qualify, three primary forms are well-defined:

1. Central Core Disease: A dominantly inherited condition causing mild infantile leg weakness and delayed walking, typically non-progressive.
2. Nemaline Rod Myopathy: Inherited dominantly or recessively, presenting with infantile weakness, feeding difficulties, and potential respiratory involvement.
3. Centronuclear (Myotubular) Myopathy: Features severe weakness and respiratory complications.   NIND

Cumulative Trauma Disorders

Repetitive Motion Disorders (RMDs)

RMDs, or cumulative trauma disorders, arise from repetitive physical activities, causing inflammation or damage to muscles, tendons, or nerves. Common examples include:

• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
• Tendonitis
• Bursitis

Symptoms: Pain, numbness, swelling, and reduced mobility in affected areas (e.g., hands, wrists, elbows). Risk factors include poor posture, overexertion, and unnatural motions.  OSHA

Opsoclonus-Myoclonus Syndrome (Dancing Eyes-Dancing Feet Syndrome)

A rare neurological disorder featuring:

• Opsoclonus: Rapid, irregular eye movements
• Myoclonus: Sudden muscle jerks
• Ataxia: Unsteady gait
  Additional symptoms may include speech difficulties, irritability, and lethargy. NORD

Dementia

Dementia is a progressive decline in cognitive function—including memory, thinking, and reasoning—caused by brain damage or disease. Unlike normal aging, dementia significantly impairs daily life and independence. Common types include Alzheimer’s disease (60-80% of cases), vascular dementia, and Lewy body dementia.

Key Symptoms:

• Memory loss
• Difficulty communicating
• Impaired judgment
• Confusion about time/place
• Mood or personality changes

Risk Factors:

• Age (most common after 65)
• Family history
• Cardiovascular disease
• Head injuries

early diagnosis and management (medications, therapy, lifestyle changes) can slow progression.

ALZ. ASSN.

Developmental Dyspraxia (Development Corordination Disorder)

A motor planning disorder affecting coordinated movements without muscular or sensory deficits. Symptoms include difficulty with purposeful actions (e.g., writing, buttoning clothes). Cleveland Clinic

Diabetic Neuropathy

Diabetic neuropathy is a nerve disorder caused by prolonged high blood sugar levels in people with diabetes. This condition develops gradually, often starting with subtle symptoms that may go undetected for years.

Symptoms & Progression

• Early stage: Mild numbness, tingling, or burning pain in the feet or legs
• Advanced stage: Muscle weakness (particularly in the feet), loss of coordination
• Acute complications: Sudden nerve inflammation causing double vision, drooping eyelids (ptosis), or thigh muscle weakness
• Systemic effects: Digestive issues (indigestion, diarrhea/constipation), dizziness, bladder dysfunction, and sexual impotence

Key Facts

• Develops due to long-term vascular and metabolic damage from diabetes
• Most common in poorly controlled diabetes but can occur even with management
• Early blood sugar control may slow progression Mayo Clinic

Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in reading, writing, and spelling despite normal intelligence and adequate instruction. It stems from differences in brain processing of language-related information, not from vision/hearing problems or poor teaching. Importantly, dyslexia occurs across all intelligence levels, including gifted individuals. Cleveland Clinic

Encephalitis
Encephalitis is an acute brain inflammation typically caused by viral infections, though bacterial infections (e.g., meningitis), parasites (e.g., malaria), or autoimmune conditions may also trigger it. The inflammation can cause life-threatening brain swelling, potentially leading to permanent neurological damage or death.   NIND

 

Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures resulting from abnormal electrical activity in the brain. These episodes may affect movement, sensation, consciousness, or behavior, with severity varying from brief lapses in awareness to full-body convulsions.

WHO

Erb’s Palsy
Erb’s Palsy is a birth injury causing arm weakness due to damage to the brachial plexus nerves during delivery. These nerves control arm movement and sensation, and injury typically occurs from excessive stretching during difficult births. Erb’s Palsy

Essential Tremor
Essential tremor is a common movement disorder causing involuntary shaking, most noticeable during voluntary movements. While its exact cause remains unknown, it typically affects hands, voice, or head without other neurological symptoms.  WebMD

Extrapontine Myelinolysis
Central pontine myelinolysis (CPM) is a serious neurological condition often triggered by rapid correction of sodium deficiency. The sudden sodium level changes disrupt brain chemistry, destroying the protective myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the brainstem.   ScienceDirect

Fabry Disease  

Caused by the lack of or faulty enzyme needed to metabolize lipids, fat-like substances that include oils, waxes, and fatty acids. The enzyme is known as ceramide trihexosidase, also called alpha-galactosidase-A. A mutation in the gene that controls this enzyme causes the insufficient breakdown of lipids, which build up to harmful levels in the eyes, kidneys, autonomic nervous system, and cardiovascular system.

Fainting

Fainting, also called syncope, is a sudden, temporary loss of consciousness due to insufficient blood flow and oxygen to the brain (central ischemic response). Contributing factors include dehydration, low blood pressure, hypoglycemia, rapid growth, excessive physical exertion, emotional stress, and sleep deprivation. In some cases, pressure on the carotid artery can trigger a vagal response, slowing the heart rate and leading to fainting. Cleveland clinic

Gerstmann’s Syndrome

Gerstmann’s syndrome is a rare neurological disorder marked by four key symptoms:

1. Dysgraphia/agraphia (writing impairment)
2. Dyscalculia/acalculia (difficulty with math)
3. Left-right disorientation
4. Finger agnosia (inability to recognize fingers)

This condition is often linked to damage in the parietal lobe of the brain. ScienceDirect

Head Injury

Head injuries range from scalp and skull damage to traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). They can be closed (no skull fracture) or open/penetrating (skull breached). Brain injuries may be diffuse (widespread, like concussions) or focal (localized, like contusions). Mayo Clinic

Headache

Headaches are classified into four main types:

1. Vascular (e.g., migraines, cluster headaches, hypertension-related)
2. Muscle contraction (tension) (tightened facial/neck muscles)
3. Traction (caused by structural issues like tumors)
4. Inflammatory (due to infections or other conditions)

Migraines often involve severe unilateral pain, nausea, and visual disturbances, affecting women more frequently.  AMF

Hemifacial Spasm

Hemifacial spasm (HFS) is a neuromuscular disorder characterized by involuntary, intermittent twitching or contractions of the muscles on one side of the face. It typically begins with mild eyelid spasms (blepharospasm) and may progress to involve the cheek, mouth, and neck muscles, sometimes leading to forced eye closure or facial distortion.

Causes

• Most cases result from compression of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) by a blood vessel (usually the anterior inferior cerebellar artery).
• Rarely, it may be caused by tumors, nerve damage, or Bell’s palsy.  Mayo Clinic

Hydrocephalus

Hydrocephalus (“water on the brain”) is characterized by abnormal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) buildup in brain ventricles, increasing intracranial pressure. Symptoms include head enlargement, seizures, and cognitive impairment.  Hydroassoc

Hypernychthemeral Syndrome (Non-24 Sleep-Wake Disorder)

Non-24 is a circadian rhythm disorder where the sleep-wake cycle exceeds 24 hours. It predominantly affects blind individuals but can also occur in sighted people, often causing severe sleep disruption.The disorder in its extreme form is an invisible disability that can be extremely debilitating.    CSDN

Hypersomnia

Hypersomnia is a sleep disorder marked by recurrent episodes of excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) or prolonged nighttime sleep. Unlike fatigue caused by insufficient sleep, individuals with hypersomnia experience an overwhelming urge to nap during the day, even at inappropriate times (e.g., during work, meals, or conversations). These naps often fail to alleviate sleepiness. Additional symptoms may include:

• Difficulty waking after long sleep periods
• Sleep inertia (grogginess or disorientation upon waking)
• Cognitive impairment (slow thinking, memory difficulties)
• Mood disturbances (anxiety, irritability)
• Reduced energy, restlessness, and slowed speech
• In rare cases, hallucinations

Hypersomnia can be idiopathic (of unknown cause) or secondary to other medical conditions, such as neurological disorders or sleep apnea. Cleveland Clinic

 

Hypoxia

Hypoxia occurs when there is an inadequate oxygen supply to tissues or organs, often due to restricted blood flow (ischemia) or impaired oxygen exchange. Common causes include blood vessel obstruction (e.g., from clots or atherosclerosis), respiratory conditions, or high-altitude exposure. Prolonged hypoxia can lead to organ damage or failure. Cleaveland Clinic

Krabbe Disease

Krabbe disease, also called globoid cell leukodystrophy or galactosylceramide lipidosis, is a rare and often fatal neurodegenerative disorder caused by the destruction of the protective myelin sheath around nerve cells. It is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

Infants typically appear normal at birth, but symptoms emerge between 3 to 6 months and may include:

• Extreme irritability and unexplained fevers
• Muscle stiffness (spasticity) and seizures
• Feeding difficulties, vomiting, and failure to thrive
• Delayed mental and motor development

Early symptoms are often misdiagnosed as cerebral palsy due to overlapping clinical features. Without treatment, the disease progresses rapidly, leading to severe neurological deterioration.  UPMC

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities (LDs) are neurological disorders that impair the ability to acquire, process, or communicate information effectively. They can affect:

• Reading (dyslexia)
• Writing (dysgraphia)
• Math (dyscalculia)
• Motor coordination (dyspraxia)
• Attention and executive function (e.g., ADHD)

While symptoms may appear in early childhood, most LDs are identified once a child begins formal schooling. Early intervention is crucial for improving outcomes.   NHS

 

Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (LGS)

Lennox-Gastaut syndrome is a severe, treatment-resistant form of epilepsy that typically begins before age 4. It is characterized by multiple seizure types, including:

• Tonic seizures (body stiffening, upward eye gaze, irregular breathing)
• Atonic seizures (sudden loss of muscle tone, leading to falls)
• Atypical absence seizures (staring spells with partial awareness)
• Myoclonic seizures (brief, shock-like muscle jerks)

Cognitive impairment and behavioral challenges are common. LGS requires lifelong management.

Cleaveland Clinic

 

Lewy Body Dementia (LBD)

Lewy body dementia is the second most common progressive dementia after Alzheimer’s disease. Its core symptoms include:

1. Cognitive decline (memory loss, executive dysfunction)
2. Fluctuating alertness (drowsiness, confusion, or incoherent speech)
3. Recurrent visual hallucinations
4. Parkinsonism (muscle rigidity, tremors, slow movement)

LBD is often misdiagnosed due to symptom overlap with Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. Mayo Clinic

 

Lipid Storage Disorders (Lipidoses)

Lipid storage disorders are a group of inherited metabolic conditions characterized by the harmful accumulation of fatty substances (lipids) in cells and tissues. This occurs due to enzyme deficiencies that impair lipid metabolism, leading to progressive damage in organs such as the brain, liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

Key Features:

• Caused by genetic mutations affecting lipid-breaking enzymes.
• Symptoms vary by disorder but may include neurological decline, organ enlargement, and skeletal abnormalities.
• Examples include Gaucher disease, Niemann-Pick disease, and Tay-Sachs disease.ScienceDirect

Multiple System Atrophy (MSA)

Multiple System Atrophy (MSA) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting the autonomic nervous system, motor control, and balance. It was previously known as Shy-Drager syndrome when autonomic failure (e.g., severe blood pressure drops upon standing) is prominent.

Types & Symptoms:

1. MSA-P (Parkinsonian type) – Slowed movement, rigidity, tremors (resembling Parkinson’s disease).
2. MSA-C (Cerebellar type) – Poor coordination, slurred speech, gait instability.
3. Combined type – Features of both MSA-P and MSA-C.

Early symptoms often include:

• Orthostatic hypotension (dizziness/fainting upon standing).
• Urinary dysfunction, constipation, and sexual impotence (in men).
• Sleep disturbances, swallowing difficulties, and vision problems.

Diagnosis is challenging due to symptom overlap with Parkinson’s and other disorders. Mayo Clinic

Myopathy

Myopathies are neuromuscular disorders characterized by primary muscle weakness due to dysfunctional muscle fibers. Symptoms may include muscle cramps, stiffness, and spasms. Myopathies can be inherited (e.g., muscular dystrophies) or acquired (e.g., inflammatory myopathies).

Classification of Myopathies:

1. Congenital Myopathies
   • Developmental delays in motor skills
   • Possible skeletal/facial abnormalities at birth
2. Muscular Dystrophies
   • Progressive weakness in voluntary muscles
   • May be evident in infancy
3. Mitochondrial Myopathies
   • Caused by mitochondrial DNA defects (e.g., Kearns-Sayre syndrome, MELAS, MERRF)
4. Glycogen Storage Diseases
   • Enzyme deficiencies affecting glycogen metabolism (e.g., Pompe, Andersen, Cori diseases)
5. Myoglobinurias
   • Impaired myoglobin metabolism (e.g., McArdle, Tarui, DiMauro diseases)
6. Inflammatory Myopathies
   • Dermatomyositis (skin + muscle inflammation)
   • Polymyositis, Inclusion Body Myositis
7. Other Rare Myopathies
   • Familial Periodic Paralysis (episodic limb weakness)
   • Neuromyotonia (muscle twitching + stiffness)
   • Stiff-Person Syndrome (rigidity + spasms)  Cleveland Clinic

Neurofibromatosis (NF)

Neurofibromatosis is an autosomal dominant disorder causing tumors along nerves, potentially affecting skin, bones, and other tissues.

Types & Features:

• NF1 (von Recklinghausen’s disease): Café-au-lait spots, neurofibromas
• NF2: Bilateral acoustic neuromas, hearing loss
• Schwannomatosis: Painful schwannomas (rare)  Mayo Clinic

Neurological Complications of HIV/AIDS

HIV can severely impact the nervous system, even without directly infecting neurons.

Common Complications:

• Cognitive: Memory loss, confusion, dementia
• Motor: Weakness, poor coordination
• Peripheral Neuropathy: Pain/numbness in limbs
• Opportunistic Infections: Toxoplasmosis, PML
• Psychiatric: Depression, anxiety  John Hopkins

Neuropathy

Neuropathy refers to damage or dysfunction of peripheral nerves, leading to sensory, motor, or autonomic disturbances.

Hereditary Neuropathies

A subset of inherited peripheral nerve disorders classified into four main types:

1. Hereditary Motor and Sensory Neuropathy (HMSN) – Weakness, atrophy, and sensory loss in extremities.
2. Hereditary Sensory Neuropathy (HSN) – Predominant pain and temperature insensitivity.
3. Hereditary Motor Neuropathy (HMN) – Primarily muscle weakness without sensory loss.
4. Hereditary Sensory and Autonomic Neuropathy (HSAN) – Autonomic dysfunction (e.g., sweating abnormalities, blood pressure instability).

Common Symptoms:

• Numbness/tingling in hands and feet
• Distal muscle weakness
• Foot deformities (e.g., high arches)
• Reduced pain sensitivity
• Autonomic dysfunction (postural hypotension, skin changes)    healthdirect

Occipital Neuralgia

A headache disorder characterized by severe, sharp, or electric-like pain in the occipital region (back of the head, upper neck, behind ears), often unilateral.

Key Features:

• Pain originates at the skull base (C2-C3 nerve roots) and radiates upward.
• Triggered by neck movement or pressure on the occipital nerves.
• Associated symptoms:
  • Scalp tenderness
  • Light sensitivity (photophobia)
  • Rarely, pain behind the eyes         WebMD

Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

A progressive motor system disorder caused by degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra. In simpler language Parkinson’s disease (PD) is part of a class of motor system disorders that arise from the degeneration of brain cells responsible for producing dopamine.

Cardinal Symptoms:

1. Tremor – Pill-rolling rest tremor (hands, jaw, legs).
2. Rigidity – Stiffness in limbs/trunk.
3. Bradykinesia – Slowed movement.
4. Postural Instability – Impaired balance (late-stage).

As Parkinson’s disease advances, individuals may find it increasingly difficult to walk, speak, or carry out routine activities. The condition most often develops after age 50, with early symptoms emerging gradually and often going unnoticed. The progression of the disease varies among individuals—some experience a faster decline than others. Eventually, tremors, which are common in PD, can begin to interfere with everyday life.

Non-Motor Symptoms:

• Depression, anxiety
• Sleep disturbances
• Constipation, dysphagia
• Cognitive decline (in advanced stages)

Diagnosis: Clinically based (no definitive lab test).    Mayo Clinic

 

Peripheral Neuropathy

Damage to the peripheral nervous system, disrupting communication between the brain/spinal cord and the body.

Causes & Symptoms:

• Causes: Diabetes, infections, toxins, trauma.
• Symptoms:
  • Sensory: Numbness, tingling, burning pain.
  • Motor: Weakness, muscle atrophy.
  • Autonomic: Blood pressure fluctuations, digestive issues.    Cleveland Clinic

 Primary Lateral Sclerosis 

A rare motor neuron disease causing progressive spastic weakness in voluntary muscles.

Key Features:

• Onset typically after age 50.
• Symptoms:
  • Stiffness/weakness in legs (early) → spreads to arms, speech muscles.
  • Spasticity, gait difficulties, slurred speech.
• Differentiated from ALS by lack of muscle atrophy.  Cleaveland Clinic

Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive impairment of balance, eye movement control, and cognition.

Key Features:

• Gait & Balance Issues: Frequent falls due to postural instability
• Oculomotor Dysfunction: Difficulty moving eyes vertically (supranuclear gaze palsy)
• Behavioral Changes: Apathy, depression, and mild dementia
• Other Symptoms: Slurred speech, swallowing difficulties, and rigid movements

PSP is often misdiagnosed as Parkinson’s disease but progresses more rapidly.  Mayo Clinic

Repetitive Stress Injuries

Repetitive Stress Injuries (RSI), also called cumulative trauma disorders, result from repeated overuse of specific muscle groups during occupational or recreational activities.

Common Types & Symptoms:

• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Tingling/numbness in hands
• Tendinitis: Inflammation of tendons (e.g., tennis elbow)
• Bursitis: Joint pain from repetitive motion
• Trigger Finger: Locking of finger tendons

Primary Causes: Poor ergonomics, excessive computer/mobile use, or repetitive manual labor.

NHS

Restless Legs Syndrome

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS), or Wittmaack-Ekbom syndrome, is a sensorimotor disorder causing uncomfortable limb sensations and an urge to move.

Clinical Features:

• Symptoms Worsen at Night, disrupting sleep
• Temporary Relief with movement (walking, stretching)
• Common Triggers: Iron deficiency, pregnancy, neuropathy

Associated Condition: Periodic Limb Movement Disorder (PLMD).  Mayo Clinic

Sandhoff Disease

Sandhoff disease is a rare, fatal lysosomal storage disorder caused by beta-hexosaminidase enzyme deficiency, leading to toxic lipid accumulation in the brain and organs.

Symptoms & Progression:

• Onset: ~6 months of age
• Neurological Decline: Motor weakness, seizures, blindness
• Physical Signs: Macrocephaly, cherry-red retinal spots
• Rapid Progression: Most cases are fatal by early childhood

Genetic Basis: Autosomal recessive (non-ethnic specific)

Cleveland Clinic

Sleep Apnea  

Definition: A prevalent sleep disorder marked by repeated pauses in breathing during sleep, each lasting 10+ seconds. These interruptions trigger partial awakenings, though sufferers often remain unaware of them.

Types & Causes:

• Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA): Caused by throat muscle relaxation blocking the airway (most common type).
• Central Sleep Apnea (CSA): Results from disrupted brain signals controlling respiration.
• Mixed: Many patients experience both OSA and CSA.

Symptoms:

• Loud snoring with gasping/choking sounds
• Excessive daytime fatigue
• Morning headaches, irritability, or depression
• Cognitive issues (poor concentration, memory lapses) Mayo Clinic

Spasticity

Definition: A motor disorder involving chronic muscle contraction, leading to stiffness, pain, and impaired movement.

Causes:
Brain/spinal cord damage from:

• Stroke, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis  Lou Gehrig’s disease
• Traumatic injuries (e.g., spinal cord trauma)
• Neurodegenerative diseases (ALS, adrenoleukodystrophy)

Symptoms:

• Hypertonicity (abnormally stiff muscles)
• Clonus (involuntary muscle jerks)
• Scissoring legs or fixed joints Johns Hopkins Med

Tinnitus

Definition: Perception of sound (e.g., ringing, buzzing) without external noise, often linked to CNS disorders.

Characteristics:

• Sounds: Hissing, humming, clicking, or roaring
• May be unilateral/bilateral or “inside the head”
• Potential early sign of neurological disease  Cleveland Clinic

Todd’s Paralysis

Definition: A transient neurological condition causing temporary weakness (paresis) or paralysis in specific body regions following a seizure episode.

Key Features:

• Typically unilateral (affects one side of the body)
• Most common in limbs but may impair speech, vision, or eye movement
• Resolves spontaneously within 48 hours (critical to distinguish from stroke)

Clinical Significance:
Helps differentiate between epileptic seizures and other neurological events.  BrainFacts

Tourette Syndrome

A Comprehensive Overview

Definition and Core Features
Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic that persist for more than one year. These involuntary movements and sounds:

• Typically first appear between ages 5-7 years
• Peak in severity between 8-12 years
• Often improve during adolescence and adulthood
• Can vary in frequency and intensity over time (waxing and waning pattern)

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

• Affects approximately 1% of school-aged children worldwide
• Male-to-female ratio ranges from 3:1 to 4:1
• Strong genetic component (family history present in many cases)
• Frequently co-occurs with other neurodevelopmental conditions

Spectrum of Tic Manifestations

Motor Tics
Simple:

• Eye blinking (most common initial symptom)
• Nose twitching
• Shoulder shrugging
• Head jerking

Complex:

• Touching objects/people
• Jumping
• Copropraxia (obscene gestures)
• Echopraxia (imitating others’ movements)

Vocal Tics
Simple:

• Throat clearing
• Sniffing
• Grunting
• Squeaking sounds

Complex:

• Coprolalia (involuntary swearing, present in only 10-15% of cases)
• Echolalia (repeating others’ words)
• Palilalia (repeating one’s own words)

Common Co-occurring Conditions
Up to 90% of individuals with TS have at least one additional neuropsychiatric condition:

• ADHD (60% comorbidity)
• OCD (50% comorbidity)
• Anxiety disorders
• Learning disabilities
• Sleep disturbances
• Anger control issues

Diagnostic Process

1. Clinical evaluation by neurologist or psychiatrist
2. Must include:
   • Multiple motor tics
   • At least one vocal tic
   • Duration >1 year
   • Onset before age 18
3. Rule out other causes (e.g., medications, substance use, other neurological disorders)

Treatment Approaches

Behavioral Therapies

• Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics (CBIT)
• Habit Reversal Training
• Exposure and Response Prevention

Emerging Therapies

• Deep Brain Stimulation (for severe, treatment-resistant cases)
• Cannabis-based medicines (under investigation)  NINDS

Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Definition & Causes
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) refers to brain damage caused by external physical force, typically resulting from:

• Closed head injury (e.g., falls, car accidents, sports collisions)
• Penetrating injury (e.g., gunshot wounds, skull fractures)

TBI is a subset of acquired brain injury (ABI), distinct from non-traumatic causes like stroke or infections.

Affected Brain Structures
Damage may occur in:

• Cerebral hemispheres (impairing cognition, movement)
• Cerebellum (affecting coordination)
• Brainstem (disrupting vital functions)

Symptoms & Complications

• Physical: Headaches, seizures, motor deficits
• Cognitive: Memory loss, confusion, slowed thinking
• Emotional/Behavioral: Depression, irritability, personality changes

Emergency Management
Immediate care focuses on:

1. Stabilizing oxygenation and blood pressure
2. Preventing secondary damage (e.g., swelling, bleeding)
3. Imaging (CT/MRI) to assess injury severity CDC.gov

Trigeminal Neuralgia

Definition: A chronic pain disorder affecting the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V), characterized by sudden, excruciating facial pain.

Key Features:

• Pain distribution: Jaw, cheeks, lips, eyes, or forehead (typically one side)
• Triggers: Light touch, chewing, cold air
• Episodic: Brief but recurrent “electric shock-like” attacks

Clinical Significance:

• Often called the “suicide disease” due to severe, treatment-resistant pain.
• Most cases involve blood vessel compression on the nerve root.

Treatment Options:

• Medications (anticonvulsants like carbamazepine)
• Surgery (microvascular decompression)  NINDS

Tropical Spastic Paraparesis

Definition: A progressive neurological disorder endemic to tropical regions, linked to HTLV-1 virus infection.

Symptoms:

• Motor: Leg weakness, muscle stiffness/spasms
• Sensory: Numbness, tingling
• Autonomic: Bladder/bowel dysfunction

Epidemiology:
Primarily affects adults in equatorial areas (Caribbean, South America, Africa).

Management:

• Immunomodulatory therapy (interferons)
• Symptomatic relief (muscle relaxants, physical therapy) NINDS

Whiplash

Whiplash Injury
Definition: A neck sprain caused by rapid hyperextension/flexion of the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar spine, typically occurring during rear-end collisions or sudden impacts.

Key Characteristics:

• Mechanism: Sudden forward-backward motion tears muscle fibers and strains ligaments
• Symptoms:
  • Neck pain and stiffness
  • Reduced range of motion
  • Headaches (often originating from the skull base)
  • Potential dizziness or cognitive fog

Clinical Management:

• Acute phase: Soft collar, ice, and NSAIDs
• Rehabilitation: Physical therapy to restore mobility
• Chronic cases may require pain management interventions  ³         MAYO CLINIC

Neuroimaging distinction between neurological and psychiatric disorders

Background and Rationale

The long-standing clinical separation between neurological and psychiatric disorders has traditionally relied on symptom-based classifications rather than definitive biological markers. While neurological conditions are often associated with identifiable structural brain abnormalities, psychiatric disorders have primarily been characterized by functional and behavioral manifestations. However, emerging evidence suggests this dichotomy may not fully capture the complex neurobiological overlap between these categories.

To address this knowledge gap, contemporary research has employed advanced neuroimaging techniques to:

• Identify objective neuroanatomical differences between these disorder classes
• Quantify the degree of biological distinction at both regional and network levels
• Evaluate whether current diagnostic boundaries align with underlying brain pathology

This investigation is particularly timely given:

1. The frequent co-occurrence of neurological and psychiatric symptoms (e.g., depression in Parkinson’s disease)
2. Growing recognition of shared genetic risk factors across diagnostic categories
3. The need for more biologically-grounded treatment approaches   Molecular Psychiatry

Methodology:

• Analyzed 24 disorders (14 neurological, 10 psychiatric) via voxel-based morphometry
• Mapped regional atrophy patterns and network disruptions

Key Findings:

Neurological Disorders:

• Predominant damage in:
  • Basal ganglia (movement control)
  • Sensorimotor cortex
  • Temporal lobes (memory/auditory processing)

Psychiatric Disorders:

• Greater impairment in:
  • Cingulate cortex (emotional regulation)
  • Medial prefrontal cortex (decision-making)
  • Occipital lobes (visual processing)

Network Analysis:

• Between-class similarity: 12% overlap
• Within-class similarity:
  • Neurological: 68% consistency
  • Psychiatric: 41% consistency

Neuroimaging confirms distinct pathological signatures, supporting the categorical separation of these disorder classes. Nicolas A. Crossley, Jessica Scott, Ian Ellison-Wright, and Andrea Mechelli

Comparative Summary

Feature	Neurological Disorders	Psychiatric Disorders
Primary Damage	Sensorimotor pathways	Limbic-cortical networks
Diagnostic Tools	MRI/CT (structural lesions visible)	PET/fMRI (functional abnormalities)
Treatment Focus	Symptom management, rehabilitation	Psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy

Implications:

• Guides targeted therapeutic approaches
• Informs differential diagnosis protocols

Note: Hybrid conditions (e.g., Parkinson’s with depression) require integrated care models.

This revision enhances clinical accuracy while improving readability through structured formatting and authoritative sourcing. Let me know if you’d like to emphasize any specific aspect further.

 

References

[1] National Alliance on Mental Illness Southern Arizona

[2] Mental Health Center of America

[3] MONTANA.GOV, Neurological Disorders

[4] Disabled World, List of Neurological Disorders and Their Descriptions

[5] National Library of Medicine, Neuroimaging distinction between neurological and psychiatric disorders

[6] Child Neurology, What is Neurologic Disorder

[7] National Library of Medicine, Anosognosia

[8]   Cleveland Clinic

[9]   Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand, Anxiety

[10] Mayo Clinic, Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)in Children

[11] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Signs and Symptoms of Autism Spectrum

[12] American Psychiatric Association, Bipolar Disorder

[13] National Institute of Mental Health, Borderline Personality Disorder

[14] World Health Organisation, Depressive disorder

[15] National Library of Medicine, Major Depressive Disorder

[16] Mayo Clinic, Clinical Depressions

[17] American Psychiatric Association, Dissociative Disorder

[18] Mayo Clinic, Dissociative disorders

[19] Cleveland Clinic, Dual Diagnosis

[20] American Psychiatric Association, Eating Disorder

[21] American Psychiatric Association, OCD

[22] Cleveland Clinic, OCD

[23] NHS.UK, Panic Disorder

[24] Verywell Health, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

[25] Verywell Health, PTSD

[26] National Library of Medicine, Medline Plus, Schizoaffective Disorder

[27] Mayo Clinic, Schizoaffective Disorder

[28] National Institute of Mental Health, Schizophrenia

[29] National Institute of Mental Health, SAD

[30] Cleveland Clinic, Tardive Dyskinesia

[31] Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Tourette Syndrome

[32] My-MS.org, White matter

[33] WHO, Mental Health

[34] John Hopkins Medicine, ADHD

[35] Rethink Mental illness

[36] WHO

[37] National Library of Medicine

[38] Cleavland Clinic

[39] National Library of Medicine

Debasis Chaudhuri