Human society refers to a group of individuals who share a common culture, interact with one another, and live in an organized community. It is characterized by social relationships, institutions, and shared norms that govern behavior and cooperation among its members.[22]
Table of Contents
Introduction: A Disconnected Age
1. Joint Family System: The Multi-Generational Safety Net
-
1.1 What is a Joint Family?
-
1.2 Key Advantages of Joint Families
-
1.2.1 Round-the-Clock Companionship
-
1.2.2 Elder Care and Emotional Support
-
1.2.3 Transmission of Values and Traditions
-
1.2.4 Shared Grief and Joy
-
-
1.3 Cultural Example: India’s Community-Centric Family Structure
-
1.4 Challenges and Modern Adaptations
-
1.4.1 Urbanization and Migration Effects
-
1.4.2 Co-living Spaces for Seniors
-
1.4.3 Multi-generational Housing Projects
-
1.4.4 Evolving Architectural Designs
-
2. Nuclear Family: The Core Unit of Intimacy and Emotional Nourishment
-
2.1 Key Characteristics of Nuclear Familiesi.
-
i. Small & Independent
-
ii. Deverse Formsiii.
-
iii. Economic Self-Sufficiencyiv.
-
iv. Emphasis on Privacy & Autonomy
-
v. Adaptability
-
2.2 Contrast with Traditional Nuclear Families:
-
2.3 Strengths of Nuclear Families
-
2.3.1 Strong Parent-Child Bonds
-
2.3.2 Autonomy and Privacy
-
-
2.4 Challenges of Nuclear Families: The Loneliness Factor
-
2.4.1 Social Isolation in Urban Settings
-
2.4.2 Elderly Isolation
-
-
2.5 Solutions: Blending Nuclear and Extended Family Benefits
3. Community: The Enduring Fabric of Social Belonging
-
3.1 The Role of Communities in Reducing Loneliness
-
3.2 How Communities Foster Connection
-
3.2.1 Festivals and Collective Rituals
-
3.2.2 Crisis Support Networks
-
3.2.3 Participatory Governance
-
-
3.3 Global Loneliness Data (Gallup, USA & Asia)
-
3.4 International Efforts: The UN Decade of Healthy Aging (2021–2030)
-
3.5 Global Case Study: Cohousing in Scandinavia
-
3.6 WHO’s Community Mental Health Advocacy
4. Cooperatives: Social Networks Through Economic Solidarity
-
4.1 What Are Cooperatives?
-
4.2 How Cooperatives Combat Loneliness
-
4.2.1 Collective Empowerment & Social Interaction
-
4.2.2 Support for Marginalized Groups
-
4.2.3 Educational & Leadership Development
-
-
4.3 Case Study: Amul Dairy Cooperative (India)
5. Social Capital: The Invisible Wealth That Holds Societies Together
-
5.1 The Growing Importance of Social Capital in Modern Society
-
5.2 The Three Pillars of Social Capital
-
5.2.1 Bonding Social Capital
-
5.2.2 Bridging Social Capital
-
5.2.3 Linking Social Capital
-
6. Key Features of Social Capital
6.1 Networks and Relationships
6.2 Trust and Reciprocity
6.3 Shared Norms and Values
6.4 Collective Efficacy
6.5 Information Flow
6.6 Civic engagement
6.7 Economic and Social Benefits
6.8 Durability and Decline
7. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) – Definition of Social
7.1 Key Components of the OECD definition
8. Improved Social Capital, Fights loneliness
8.1 Improved Health Outcomes
8.2 Enhanced Community Resilience
8.3 Economic Opportunity and Job Mobility
9. Measuring Social Capital
9.1 Trust in Institutions and Neighbours
9.2 Civic Participation
9.3 Social Networks and Memberships
9.4 Norms of Reciprocity and Co-operation
10. List of References
Introduction: A Disconnected Age
In today’s hyper-connected yet increasingly isolated world, loneliness has become a global public health concern.
As modern life accelerates, many people find themselves paradoxically more connected yet increasingly isolated.
In Part II of our series on Strengthening Social Bond, we take a closer look at how families, communities, and social collectives serve as vital counterforces to loneliness in contemporary society.
We explore the enduring strengths of joint families, offering multi-generational safety nets and emotional support, alongside the intimate but often isolated nuclear family structure.
We also examine how urbanization and migration are reshaping traditional family roles, giving rise to innovative solutions like co-living spaces and multi-generational housing.
At the community level, festivals, mutual aid networks, and participatory governance continue to build resilience and belonging. Central to all these layers is social capital — the trust, cooperation, and shared values that quietly sustain healthy, connected societies.
In an era where digital connectivity is at its peak, the paradox of widespread loneliness persists. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified loneliness as a pressing public health concern, linking it to increased risks of depression, anxiety, cardiovascular diseases, and even premature mortality . Despite the proliferation of social media and virtual interactions, many individuals report feeling more isolated than ever before.
Modern societal shifts towards individualism, urbanization, and nuclear family structures have weakened traditional support systems. The decline of multi-generational households, erosion of neighbourhood ties, and the rise of remote work have all contributed to a crisis of social disconnection.
However, solutions lie within the very structures that once held societies together:
- Families
- Communities
- Cooperatives
- Social Clubs
These entities have demonstrated measurable success in reducing loneliness and fostering resilience. Research from the Harvard Study of Adult Development, the longest-running study on human happiness, confirms that strong familial bonds are the single greatest predictor of long-term well-being. [7]
Meanwhile, WHO’s reports highlight how community-based interventions can significantly reduce loneliness among the elderly. Economic cooperatives like Spain’s Mondragon Corporation showcase how workplace collectives can combat isolation and economic insecurity . Denmark’s ‘foreningslivet’ (activity within local associations) [4] culture illustrates how structured social clubs can enhance national happiness .[1]
This blog explores how strengthening these bonds can combat loneliness, foster emotional resilience, and create a more compassionate society.
1. Joint Family System: The Multi-Generational Safety Net
1.1 What is a Joint Family?
A joint family, prevalent in South Asia, Africa, and parts of the Middle East, consists of multiple generations—grandparents, parents, children, uncles, aunts, and cousins—living under one roof. Unlike nuclear families, joint families emphasize collective responsibility, shared resources, and intergenerational bonding.
1.2 Key Advantages of Joint Families 1.2.1 Round-the-Clock Companionship
In joint families, individuals rarely experience prolonged isolation. Even if one member is busy, others are available for conversation, emotional support, or shared activities. This constant interaction reduces feelings of loneliness, especially among the elderly and children.
1.2.2 Elder Care and Emotional Support
Aging parents in joint families receive care, respect, and dignity. Unlike in Western societies, where elderly individuals often face institutionalization, joint families ensure that seniors remain integrated into daily life. A study in the Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry found that elderly individuals in joint families reported significantly less perceived loneliness than those in nuclear or single-person households .[2]
1.2.3 Transmission of Values and Traditions
Storytelling, rituals, and shared meals allow wisdom and cultural traditions to pass seamlessly between generations. Children raised in joint families develop stronger emotional intelligence, empathy, and conflict-resolution skills
1.2.4 Shared Grief and Joy
During crises—illness, financial struggles, or bereavement—joint families provide immediate emotional and logistical support. Celebrations like weddings, festivals, and harvests are communal events that reinforce belonging.
1.3 Cultural Example: India’s Community-Centric Family Structure
In rural and semi-urban India, joint families are deeply embedded in community life. Festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Eid are celebrated collectively, reinforcing social cohesion. Agricultural communities, in particular, rely on joint family labor, ensuring economic and emotional interdependence. [14]
1.4 Challenges and Modern Adaptations
1.4.1 Urbanisation and Migration Effects
While joint families offer immense benefits, urbanization and migration are weakening this system. However, some modern adaptations—such as co-living spaces for seniors and multi-generational housing projects—are reviving the concept in new forms.
In India, the traditional joint family system has long been a cornerstone of societal structure, offering emotional support and shared responsibilities. However, rapid urbanization and increased migration have led to a decline in such family setups. To address this, modern adaptations like co-living spaces for seniors and multi-generational housing projects are emerging.
1.4.2 Co-living spaces for seniors
Co-living spaces for seniors provide communal living arrangements where elderly individuals can live together, sharing resources and companionship. These setups aim to combat loneliness and provide a support system for the aging population. An example of this trend is highlighted in an article discussing the rise of co-living retirement homes, which notes that such arrangements help seniors stay involved in society and build meaningful relationships. [12]
1.4.3 Multi-generational housing projects
Multi-generational housing projects are designed to accommodate multiple generations under one roof, promoting intergenerational bonding while allowing for individual privacy. These housing solutions are gaining popularity as they blend traditional family values with modern living arrangements. A LinkedIn article discusses how multi-generational co-living solutions in India are transforming elder care, offering a middle ground between traditional values and modern necessities. [13]
1.4.4 Evolving Architectural Designs
Architectural designs are also evolving to support these modern family structures. For instance, courtyards are being reintroduced in multi-generational houses in India to foster connections among family members. An article on ArchDaily explores how courtyards serve as the heart of such homes, enabling visual connectivity and shared spaces for various activities. [15]
By investing in social infrastructure—from local meetups to structured support networks—we can turn the tide against loneliness and build healthier, happier communities.
These modern adaptations reflect a shift towards preserving the essence of joint families while accommodating the realities of contemporary urban life. By integrating communal living concepts with thoughtful architectural designs, these solutions aim to rebuild social capital and strengthen familial bonds in today’s society.[5]
2.Nuclear Family: The Core Unit of Intimacy and Emotional Nourishment
The Rise of Nuclear Families : A nuclear family in modern society refers to a household unit consisting of two married parents (or committed partners) and their dependent children, living together independently of extended relatives. This structure emphasizes emotional bonds, shared economic responsibilities, and child-rearing within a small, self-contained unit.
The nuclear family—parents and children living independently—has become the dominant household structure in Western societies and urbanizing nations. While criticized for fostering isolation, it also offers unique benefits.
2.1 Key Characteristics of Modern Nuclear Families:
i. Small & Independent – Typically includes only parents and children, separate from grandparents or other relatives.
ii. Diverse Forms – May involve:
-
-
Heterosexual or same-sex couples.
-
Biological, adopted, or stepchildren.
-
Single-parent variants (sometimes called “single-parent nuclear families”).
-
iii. Economic Self-Sufficiency – Relies on dual incomes (in many cases) or a single breadwinner.
iv. Emphasis on Privacy & Autonomy – Prioritizes individual family decision-making over extended kinship networks.
v. Adaptability – Reflects modern trends like delayed marriage, cohabitation, and lower birth rates.
2.2 Contrast with Traditional Nuclear Families:
-
Past: Strictly heterosexual, male-breadwinner model.
-
Modern: More inclusive, flexible, and shaped by gender equality, divorce, and blended families.
2.3 Strengths of Nuclear Families
2.3.1 Strong Parent-Child Bonds
With fewer competing relationships, parents in nuclear families often spend more one-on-one time with children, fostering deeper emotional connections. Psychologist John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory highlights how secure family bonds create a foundation for mental well-being.
2.3.2 Autonomy and Privacy
Nuclear families allow individuals to pursue personal aspirations without extended family pressures. Dual-income households can better manage work-life balance in fast-paced economies. [6]
2.4 Challenges of Nuclear units: The Loneliness Factor
2.4.1Social Isolation in Urban Settings
Urban nuclear families, especially single-parent or dual-income households, often lack extended social interaction. Children may grow up without grandparents, cousins, or close-knit community ties, leading to emotional fatigue.
2.4.2 Elderly Isolation
In Western cultures, elderly parents frequently live alone or in care homes. An AARP study found that nearly one-third of U.S. adults over 45 reported chronic loneliness, exacerbated by fragmented family structures.
2.5 Solutions: Blending Nuclear and Extended Family Benefits
- Regular family reunions to maintain intergenerational bonds.
- Technology-assisted connections (video calls, family group chats).
- Community-based elder care programs to supplement nuclear family support.
3. Community: The Enduring Fabric of Social Belonging
3.1 The Role of Communities in Reducing Loneliness
Communities—whether geographic, cultural, or interest-based—provide a sense of belonging that families alone cannot fulfil.
3.2 How Communities Foster Connection
3.2.1 Festivals and Collective Rituals
Events like Thanksgiving (U.S.), Carnival (Brazil), and Ramadan (Muslim world) unite people across generations. Research shows that communal celebrations enhance social cohesion and reduce alienation.
3.2.2 Crisis Support Networks
During disasters—hurricanes, pandemics, or economic downturns—communities mobilize to provide aid. The COVID-19 pandemic saw neighbourhood groups delivering groceries, organizing blood donations, and offering emotional support.
3.2.3 Participatory Governance
Village councils (e.g., India’s panchayats) and neighbourhood associations empower residents to shape their environments, fostering civic engagement and mutual trust. According to the latest data from Gallup’s National Health and Well-Being Index, one in five adults in the U.S. say they felt lonely “for much of the day yesterday.” (felt lonely for a large part of the day before today—not just briefly, but for an extended period may be in the afternoon, morning). [7]
This marks a slight increase after several months when the rate hovered around 17% to 18%. While this rise is notable, it’s still lower than the peak of 25% seen during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2021 and two other points during that time.
3.2.4 Global Loneliness
Global loneliness refers to the widespread and growing sense of social isolation and emotional disconnection experienced by individuals across the world, despite increasing technological connectivity. It is recognized as a public health concern by organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and is linked to mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and even physical health risks like cardiovascular diseases.
Key Causes:
-
Digital Overload – Superficial online interactions replacing deep, in-person relationships.
-
Urbanization – Weaker community bonds in fast-paced, densely populated cities.
-
Aging Populations – Elderly individuals facing social neglect in many societies.
-
Cultural Shifts – Decline in traditional family structures and communal living.
-
Pandemics & Lockdowns – COVID-19 exacerbated isolation worldwide.
Impacts:
-
Mental Health Decline – Increased rates of depression and suicide.
-
Economic Costs – Lost productivity due to poor well-being.
-
Societal Fragmentation – Erosion of trust and social cohesion.
Most developed countries such as the USA, many parts of Europe, and Japan have a significantly larger aging population compared with countries like India, as recently as December 2020, under 7% of Indians were aged 65 years and over.
Although, Loneliness is a known and common growing public health issues, especially among older adults in wealthy countries, it has received much less attention in lower-income nations like India. Research shows that social connections, like marriage, can help reduce loneliness. But most studies look at how marriage benefits each spouse individually, rather than how it affects the couple as a pair from Indian vis-à-vis Asian point of view. [8]
3.2.5 International Efforts
In recent years, the United Nations took a major step to support older adults by launching the Decade of Healthy Aging (2021–2030). This global initiative outlines four key goals to improve the lives of older people, their families, and communities:
- Changing attitudes– Challenging stereotypes and promoting positive views on aging.
- Building age-friendly communities– Creating environments where older adults can thrive.
- Providing better healthcare– Ensuring accessible and tailored health services for older people.
- Expanding long-term care– Guaranteeing support for those who need ongoing assistance. [9] [10]
3.2.6 Global Case Study: Cohousing in Scandinavia
Denmark and the Netherlands pioneered cohousing communities, where private homes share common spaces (dining halls, playgrounds, gardens). Studies have found that cohousing residents report higher life satisfaction, lower loneliness, and stronger social ties than those in conventional housing.
3.2.7 WHO’s Community Mental Health Advocacy
Loneliness isn’t just a personal struggle—it’s a growing public health crisis. Recognizing its harmful effects on mental and physical well-being, the World Health Organization (WHO) advocates for community-based solutions to bring people together and foster meaningful connections.
Key WHO-recommended strategies include:
- Senior companionship programs – Reducing isolation among older adults through regular social engagement.
- Intergenerational activities – Bridging age gaps by pairing youth and elders for mutual learning and support.
- Community clubs and group initiatives – Creating safe spaces where people of all ages can connect, share skills, and build friendships.
These approaches emphasize prevention and inclusion, helping individuals feel valued and connected within their communities. [11]
4. Cooperatives: Social Networks Through Economic Solidarity
4.1 What Are Cooperatives?
Cooperatives are member-owned organizations where individuals pool resources for mutual economic and social benefit. Unlike traditional corporations, co-ops prioritize democratic decision-making, equitable profit-sharing, and community development over pure profit maximization.
4.2 How Cooperatives Combat Loneliness
4. 2. 1Collective Empowerment & Social Interaction
- Members meet regularly for discussions, training, and decision-making, fostering structured social engagement.
- Shared tasks—such as farming, artisan work, or retail operations—create natural bonding opportunities.
4.2.2 Support for Marginalized Groups
- Women’s cooperatives (e.g., Self-Employed Women’s Association in India) provide financial independence and peer support.
- Agricultural co-ops in Africa (e.g., Ghana’s cocoa cooperatives) reduce rural isolation by connecting farmers to markets and each other.
4.2.3 Educational & Leadership Development
Many co-ops offer workshops on financial literacy, healthcare, and advocacy—strengthening skills and social confidence.
4. 3 Case Study: Amul Dairy Cooperative (India)
- Founded by Dr. Verghese Kurien, Amul revolutionized India’s dairy industry by empowering millions of rural women.
- Milk collection centers doubled as daily social hubs, where women discussed family issues, health, and community projects.
5. Social Capital: The Invisible Wealth That Holds Societies Together
In an age defined by rapid digital connectivity, social fragmentation paradoxically continues to rise. Urban loneliness, declining trust in institutions, and weakening neighbourhood ties are becoming increasingly common. Amid this backdrop, social capital—a concept less tangible than money but equally powerful—emerges as a crucial factor in fostering cohesive, resilient societies.
5.1 Growing importance of Social Capital in Modern Society
Social capital refers to the networks, norms, and trust that enable individuals to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives. It includes everything from friendships and neighbourhood trust to civic participation and community engagement. As Harvard sociologist Robert Putnam defines it, social capital consists of “the features of social life—networks, norms, and trust—that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives” [16] (Putnam, 2000).
5.2 The Three Pillars of Social Capital
Experts categorize social capital into three main types, each with distinct functions:
5.2.1 Bonding Social Capital
These are strong ties among individuals who are similar in terms of demographics, background, or values—think close friends, family, or religious groups. Bonding capital offers emotional support and a strong sense of identity.
5.2.2 Bridging Social Capital
These are weaker ties across diverse social groups—colleagues, acquaintances, or people from different ethnic, religious, or class backgrounds. Bridging capital introduces new perspectives and opportunities.
5.2.3 Linking Social Capital
This connects people to those in positions of power or authority—such as government officials, NGOs, or institutional leaders. It enables access to resources beyond one’s immediate community. [16]
6. Key Features of Social Capital:
6.1 Networks and Relationships
-
-
Bonding Social Capital: Strong ties among close-knit groups (family, friends).
-
Bridging Social Capital: Weaker but broader connections across diverse groups (colleagues, acquaintances).
-
Linking Social Capital: Vertical ties between different social hierarchies (citizens and institutions).
-
6.2 Trust and Reciprocity
-
-
Generalized Trust: Belief in the reliability of strangers or societal systems.
-
Reciprocity: Mutual exchange of favors, creating long-term cooperation.
-
- 6.3 Shared Norms and Values
-
- Common cultural or ethical standards that guide behavior (e.g., honesty, fairness).
-
Informal rules that encourage prosocial actions
- 6.4 Collective Efficacy
-
A community’s ability to organize and act for common goals (e.g., neighborhood safety, civic engagement).
-
- 6.5 Information Flow
-
Social networks as channels for knowledge, opportunities, and resources.
-
- 6.6 Civic Engagement
-
Participation in associations, clubs, or political activities that strengthen communal bonds
-
6.7 Economic and Social Benefits
-
-
For Individuals: Job opportunities, emotional support, better health.
-
For Societies: Lower crime rates, higher economic growth, resilient communities.
-
- 6.8 Durability and Decline
-
Can accumulate over time but may erode due to individualism, inequality, or distrust.
-
Examples:
-
A close-knit neighborhood organizing a cleanup (bonding capital).
-
Business professionals networking across industries (bridging capital).
-
Citizens collaborating with local government for policy change (linking capital).
7. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) definition of social capital
The OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) defines social capital as:
“Networks together with shared norms, values and understandings that facilitate cooperation within or among groups.”
7.1 Key Components of the OECD’s Definition:
- Networks – The relationships and connections between individuals, groups, and institutions.
- Shared norms, values, and understandings – Common beliefs and mutual trust that enable collective action.
- Facilitation of cooperation – The ability of social capital to improve collaboration for mutual benefit.
The OECD emphasizes that social capital contributes to economic and social well-being by fostering trust, reducing transaction costs, and enabling collective problem-solving.[21]
8. Improved Social Capital Fights Loneliness
Loneliness is a growing public health concern linked to depression, cardiovascular disease, and reduced life expectancy. Social capital—built through strong networks, trust, and community engagement—plays a crucial role in mitigating loneliness by fostering meaningful connections and support systems.
8.1 Improved Health Outcomes
Numerous studies have shown that people with rich social connections experience better mental and physical health. According to Harvard’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health, social connectedness is as important as diet and exercise in predicting long-term health outcomes [19]
- In otherwards, Individuals with higher social capital have more frequent and meaningful interactions, reducing isolation.
- Example: Participation in community groups, religious organizations, or sports clubs provides regular social contact.
8.2 Enhanced Community Resilience
Communities with strong social capital respond more effectively to disasters and crises. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, neighbourhoods with established social networks organized mutual aid groups and supported vulnerable members [22] (WHO, 2022).
8.3 Economic Opportunity and Job Mobility
Social networks often provide access to job openings, mentorship, and professional development. The World Bank identifies social capital as an economic asset that promotes economic growth and reduces inequality [18](World Bank).
9. Measuring Social Capital
While social capital is intangible and difficult to quantify directly, the OECD and other institutions use proxies and indicators to assess it, including:
- Trust in Institutions & Neighbours
- Confidence in government, legal systems, and fellow citizens.
- Civic Participation
- Voter turnout, volunteering, and engagement in community activities.
- Social Networks & Membership
- Participation in clubs, religious groups, and professional associations.
- Norms of Reciprocity & Co-operation
- Willingness to help others and expectations of mutual support.
The OECD’s Social Capital Framework provides a structured approach to measuring these aspects across member nations, influencing policies on education, labor markets, and community development. [20]
List of References
[1] ‘What the Longest Study on Human Happiness Found Is the Key to a Good Life’, By Robert Waldinger and Marc Schulz, The Atlantic
[2] Loneliness and Social Isolation among the Elderly: Are We Doing Enough?
Khurana, Hitesh; Gupta, Nitin, Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 39(1):p 1-3, Jan–Mar 2023.
[3] Behind closed doors: Battling loneliness in India, social media, nuclear families and
lost purpose fuel loneliness, May 19, 2025/By Dikshaa Puri / New Delhi, MIG
[4] The Science of Danish Happiness: 5 Habits to To Bring Joy Into Your Life, Medium
[5] Loneliness and Social Isolation among the Elderly: Are We Doing Enough?
Khurana, Hitesh; Gupta, Nitin, Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 39(1):p 1-3, Jan–Mar 2023.
[6] Loneliness Statistics In India, Dhruva Koranne January 3, 2025, Mind Voyage
[7] Daily Loneliness Afflicts One in Five in U.S., Mary Page James and Dan Witters, Wellbeing, October 15, 2024, GALLUP
[8] Loneliness in Older Indian Dyads by Aparna Shankar and Tara Kidd, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public health.
[9] Loneliness and Social Isolation among the Elderly: Are We Doing Enough?
Khurana, Hitesh; Gupta, Nitin, Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 39(1):p 1-3, Jan–Mar 2023
[10] WHO’s work on the UN Decade of Healthy Ageing (2021–2030)
[11] Guidance and technical packages on community mental health services, 26 May 2021, WHO
[12] Co-Living Retirement Homes: A New Trend for Senior Care,
[13] Forget Retirement Homes: The Shocking New Trend Taking Over Indian Elder Care, Girish Sharma, Linked in
[14] Changing Dynamics of family structure in India, VisionIAS
[15] Archdaily
[16] Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital, Robert D. Putnam, Culture and Politics
[17] Exploring The Four Types Of Social Capital,By Gary Hartfield, Forbes
[18] World Bank Group
[19] Harvard T. H. Chan, School of Public Health
[20] How’s life? 2020, OECD
[21] Institute for social capital,
[22] Types of Societies, openstax
